grammar definitions -انجليزي 2024.

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we ‘ll start first with articles definitions

Articles

When do I use the articles a or an, the and some and when do I leave them out?

no article
the
a/an
some, any or no article

no article

No article is normally needed when we use uncountable and plural nouns to talk about things generally:

A: What are your hobbies?

B: I like listening to music, playing tennis and collecting stamps.

the

We use the when it is clear which thing or person we are talking about:

We saw a tiger and an elephant at the zoo, but the tiger was my favourite. (the one I mentioned a second ago)

a/an

We use a or an when we don’t specify which things or people we are talking about:

Should I use a pencil (not a particular one) or a pen (not a particular one) to fill in this form?

some, any or no article

Some and any can be used with uncountable or plural nouns when we do not know (or say) how many /much:

I can’t understand why my bank balance is so low. I’m sure I paid some money into the account last week. (I can’t remember how much)

It sometimes makes no difference if we use some or any or no article:

I’ve bought (some) tomatoes (some) apples and (some) cream but I couldn’t find (any) peaches.

However, because some and any usually suggest uncertain quantities, it would sound strange to say the following:

What is meant by the ‘first’, ‘second’ and ‘third’ conditionals?

first conditional
second conditional
third conditional

first conditional

This refers to a grammar structure used to talk about the ‘likely’ result of something happening or not happening. The grammar structure is:

if-clause: ‘if’ + present tense (eats)

main clause: will or won’t

If he takes these antibiotics, he’ll get better quickly. If he doesn’t, he won’t.

Note! Certain other modal verbs (for example, might, but not would), can be used in the main clause.

second conditional

This refers to a grammar structure used to talk about an ‘unreal’ or ‘unlikely’ situation. The grammar structure is:

If-clause: ‘if’ + past tense (ate)

Main clause: ‘would’ or ‘wouldn’t’

If my shares went up 500% I’d sell them instantly. (but it’s unlikely that they will go up 500%)

Note! Could and might can also be used in the main clause.

third conditional

This refers to a grammar structure used to imagine the impossible. It is impossible because something happened in the past and can’t be changed. The grammar structure is:

If-clause: ‘if’ + past perfect (had eaten)

Main clause: would have + past participle (eaten)

You would have passed your exam if you had studied harder. (but you didn’t study hard and you didn’t pass your exam)

What are the differences in use between because, as and since, and though, although and even though?

because, as and since
though, although and even though

because, as and since

Because, as and since are used to answer the question: ‘Why?’. They join two clauses in the same sentence:

Joe resigned because he wanted to spend more time with his family.

AND because, as and since show the relationship between the ideas in two clauses:

A: Why did you resign from such a well-paid job, Joe?

B: Because I wanted to spend more time with my family.

Because is more common than as and since when the ‘reason’ is the most important thing. The because-clause usually comes after the main clause:

I went to Cyprus for a holiday last October because I knew it would be warm and sunny every day I was there.

As and since are used when the reason is already well-known and/or less important. The as or since-clause often comes at the beginning of the sentence and is separated from the main clause by a comma:

As my family had finished dinner when I got home, I went to this really good burger bar.

( I’m telling you about the burger bar. It’s not so important ‘why’ I went there).

Since it’s your birthday, I’ll make you breakfast in bed (I’m going to make you breakfast.

(I know, and you know, it’s your birthday)

Note! In conversation, so is often used instead of since and as. The so-clause comes after the main clause.

My family had finished dinner when I got home, so I went to this really good burger bar.

though, although and even though

Though, although and even though are used to show a contrast between two clauses:

Our new neighbours are quite nice (this is good) though their two dogs bark all day long. (this isn’t good)

We can use though or although with no difference in meaning. But, some differences are:

Though is more common than although in conversation or writing.

Though (but not although) can come at the end of a sentence:

My new bike is really fast. I don’t like the colour, though.

Though (but not although) can be used as an adverb:

I’m not good at maths but I can help you with your geography, though, if you want.

The meaning of though is similar to however, but though is much more common than however in conversation.

Even though can be used to make the contrast between two clauses stronger:

What are the differences in use between much, many, a lot of, little, a little, few and a few?

much and many
a lot of
much and a lot
little and a little
few and a few

much and many

Much is used with uncountable nouns and many is used with plural nouns. They are used mainly in questions and negative sentences:

In my Spanish exam, I didn’t have much time left for the third question.

I don’t have very many DVD discs.

a lot of (lots of, plenty of and loads of)

In conversation, a lot of, lots of, plenty of and loads of are more common with uncountable and plural nouns used in positive sentences:

There is a lot of pollution in this city, isn’t there?

There are loads of tourists in town today. (informal spoken English)

Note! In a more formal English style, much and many are preferred to a lot of, lots of, plenty of, loads of.

much and a lot

Much and a lot can be used as adverbs (used to say more about the verb) after certain verbs:

I still read a lot but I don’t write very much these days.

little and a little, few and a few

We use few and a few with plural nouns, and little and a little with uncountable nouns. Little and few carry negative ideas. A little and a few carry much more positive ideas and are similar in meaning to some:

He showed little interest in socialising (he wasn’t very sociable) and few people came to his twenty-first birthday party. (some people came, but not enough to make a ‘good’ party)

When do I use the ‘-ing form’ of a verb (sleeping) and when do I use the ‘to-infinitive’ to sleep?

verbs + ‘ing-form’
verbs + ‘to-infiniive’
verbs + ‘ing-form’ or ‘to-infinitive’

verbs + ‘ing-form’

Some verbs are always followed by the ‘ing-form’, for example:

can’t help
dislike
enjoy
fancy
(can’t) face
mind
practise
(can’t) stand
suggest
consider
miss
avoid

I can’t stand doing maths homework.

verbs + ‘to-infiniive’

Some verbs are always followed by the ‘to-infinitive’, for example:

agree
appear
ask
attempt
want
decide
expect
hope
plan
refuse
pretend
promise
seem

I’ve decided to buy a Rolex. I want to have a watch that won’t break.

verbs + ‘ing-form’ or ‘to-infinitive’

Some verbs can be used by either the ‘ing-form’ or ‘to-infinitive’. There is not much difference in meaning, for example:

begin
bother
continue
hate
like
love
prefer
stand

He started to talk so fast that I couldn’t understand a word.

He started talking so fast that I couldn’t understand a word.

What are the differences in use between must have, can’t have, should have and needn’t have?

must have
can’t have
should have
needn’t have

must have

When we use must have and the past participle (must have phoned), we are making a deduction about something that has happened. We are saying, ‘I feel sure that this is the case’:

If your keys aren’t in your pocket, you must have left them in the house.

can’t have

We use can’t have and the past participle (can’t have phoned) when we are making a deduction about something that didn’t happen in the past. That is, you believe, based on present evidence, that something didn’t happen (or hasn’t happened):

He’s not looking. He can’t have heard you. Shout again!

should have

Should have and the past participle (should have phoned) expresses the idea that something was desirable or needed, but did not take place:

I should have phoned my mum last night, but I forgot. (I needed to phone my Mum but I didn’t phone her)

Shouldn’t have and the past participle (shouldn’t have phoned) expresses the idea that something did take place but that it wasn’t desirable or needed:

You shouldn’t have eaten so much chocolate, you’ll be sick. (you ate a lot of chocolate and it wasn’t a good idea)

needn’t have

Needn’t have and the past participle (needn’t have phoned) is opposite in meaning to should have. It indicates that something was done, but that it was not necessary. That is, the person who did something thought it was necessary:

A: You needn’t have ****ed a meal this evening. I had lunch at The Chinese Dragon with Tom.

When do I use common prepositions indicating place, time and movement?

in, on, at – place
in, on, at – time
to, into, from, out of – movement

in, on, at – place

In is used to talk about position inside larger areas:

Your new shirt is in the wardrobe.

On is used to talk about something’s position on a line or flat surface:

It’s on the top ****f in the wardrobe.

At is used to talk about a ‘point’ rather than a space, and events where people gather:

Write your phone number at the top of the page.

I met him at the Spice Girls concert.

in, on, at – time

At is used to specify a point in time:

I’ll meet you outside the cinema at 7.15.

In is used to talk about a longer period of time (the morning, the summer, 1972 etc):

During the holiday, I usually read in the morning and go to the beach in the afternoon.

On is used to refer to particular days and dates:

It’s Michael’s birthday on Saturday.

In is used to say how much time will pass before something happens, and to talk about how long something takes:

Hurry up, we’ve got Aerobics class in 20 minutes.

I managed to get to Level 3 of Tomb Raider in about half an hour.

With certain expressions with determiners (this, that, some, all, every) and before next and last, there is no preposition.

How are you feeling this morning? You weren’t very well last week, were you?

to, into, from, out of – movement

How far is it from the guesthouse to the beach?

When can I leave out who, which, and that in relative clauses?

relative clauses
identifying relative clauses
non-identifying relative clauses
keeping who, which and that
leaving out who, which and that

relative clauses

Sentences can be divided into parts called clauses. A relative clause is a part of a sentence that descri*** the person or thing we are talking about and is connected to other clauses in the sentence via a ‘relative pronoun’, who, which or that. Relative pronouns replace the subject or object of the verb:

Where is the new boy? He was in class yesterday.

Where is the new boy that was in class yesterday?

Can I borrow the CD? You bought the CD.

Can I borrow the CD that you bought?

identifying relative clauses

The girl that I sit next to in class, gave me her phone number.

that I sit next to in class (the relative clause) identifies ‘which’ girl (there could be many girls in the class).

non-identifying relative clauses

This is my friend, Thomas, who came on holiday with me last year.

who came on holiday with me last year does not identify ‘which’ friend (we know ‘which’ friend – the friend is Thomas).

Note! In written English, non-identifying relative clauses are separated by commas, and in speech, by pauses.

keeping who, which and that

You cannot leave out who, which, that when:

it is the subject of the verb in the relative clause

Where is the new boy that was in class yesterday?

it is part of a non-identifying relative clause

The trees that at one time lined this road have all been cut down.

leaving out who, which and that

You can leave out who, which, that when:

it replaces the object of the verb in the relative clause

Can I borrow the CD (that) you bought?